CATTLE 

Processes for rearing ruminants vary from intensive to communal grazing. Some farmers use their cattle as oxen for traction power in farm tasks such as ploughing. Male calves can be castrated. A castrated calf is called a steer. Steers are brought on to fattening pastures at weaning to receive a ration of hay and silage. The policy is to feed them all through the year.

Some heifers (female that has not yet calved) are castrated for slaughter and are bought for the local market. They carry more fat than steers of a comparable age and weight; which makes them unpopular in the meat trade. Cows culled for age, reproductive failure, or other reasons may also be castrated.

In practice, beef heifers are mated when about 26 months of age, but if well grown they can be mated earlier than that provided they are fed adequately until they reach maturity at about four years of age.

Puberty   is   attained   by   well-grown

- heifers at the age of eight to 10 months. The normal interval between oestrus (i.e heat periods when the female is ready to mate with a bull) is 20 days, and these cycles

, continue throughout the year or until pregnancy intervenes. Cows can be mated to calve every year; which is the aim of efficient management of a breeding herd.

Terms used in cattle management Cow: Adult female cattle that has calved at least once.

Bull: Adult uncastrated male cattle. Calf: young male or female cattle under one year of age. Stud: male cattle used mostly for breeding.

Calving: Act of parturition.

Heifer calf: Young female cattle that has not produce calf.

Dairy: Cattle reared for milk production. Beef: Meat from cattle, Bullock: Castrated bull.

Weaning: Calves are weaned when they are six to eight months old. Calves can safely be weaned at four months, provided they then receive good feed.

Feeding: Cattle are fed in several ways, including grazing or feeding hay and silage. Grazing is the least expensive way to deliver forage to animals. Animals typically graze on pastures, crop residues which remain in the field after crop harvests. Hay is harvested from the field and stored loose or in stacked bales. The feeding operation includes moving the hay from the stack to the open field or mangers to feed the animals. Some crops such as corn are converted into silage; and moved mechanically into mangers for feeding.

Diseases and parasites control: Timely vaccination against diseases and quarantining diseased animals are important. External parasites include flies, lice, mange, mites and ticks. Pesticides are applied by spraying or through insecticide-impregnated ear tags, dips (drenching) or as a feed additive. Internal parasites, including roundworms or flatworms, are controlled with drugs, antibiotics or drenches (oral administration of a liquid medication).

Sanitation is also a strategy for the control of infectious diseases and parasite infestations. Dipping tanks are used for parasite control in large sheep flocks.

  

Systems of rearing: Facilities used for raising cattle are generally considered to be intensive, semi-intensive or extensive. Intensive facilities include confinement houses, feedlots, barns, corrals (holding, sorting arid crowding pens), fences and working and loading chutes. Extensive facilities refer to pasture or range operations.

Feeding facilities include storage facilities (silos), haystacks, conveying equipment (including augers and elevators), feed bunks, water fountains and mineral and salt feeders. Other facilities include back rubbers for parasite control, creep-feeders (allows feeder calves to feed without adults feeding), self-feeders, calf shelters, cattle-guard gates and cattle treatment stalls.

Fencing may be used around made with barbed wire and electric fences. Woven wire may be required to contain goats. Free-ranging animals would require herding to control their movement.

POULTRY

Poultry farming is a lucrative source of income for many fanners and non-fanners all over the world. Some are subsistence, while others are reared for commercial purposes. Poultry products are very good sources of protein.

Types of Poultry

Poultry can be defined as the rearing of birds that are of economic use to man. These birds are reared for their meat and eggs; and they include fowls (chickens), ducks, geese, turkeys, guinea-fowls, pigeons, ostriches, and swans.

Among the different classes, some breeds are specially reared for meat or eggs or for both. Those reared for meat are called broilers’; those for eggs are called layers.

Classes	Young	Adult male	Adult female
Chicken	chick	cock/ rooster	hen
Duck	duckling	drake	duck
Goose	gosling	gander	goose

Incubation is the process of hatching chicks either by natural or artificial methods. In natural incubation, a broody hen sits on fertile eggs in a coop or a dry darkened area for about three weeks or 21 days. The hen turns the eggs regularly so that the embryo within each egg can develop properly.

Baby chicks needed in commercial quantities are hatched artificially in incubators. Fertile eggs are placed inside an incubator in special racks. The incubator turns the racks with the eggs. After 21 days the eggs are hatched.

	Diseases	Symptoms	Treatment	Prevention
1	Coccidiosis	Blood in droppings	Drugs	Prevent droppings in water or feed. Avoid wet litter
2	Newcastle disease	Nervous e.g. neck twisting	Drugs	Prevent droppings in water or feed. Avoid wet litter
3	Respiratory disease	Sneezing, respiratory distress, moist nostrils.	Drugs	Keep chicks away from carriers, reduce population
4	Fowl pox	Lesions on exposed part, like a comb, wattle	Treat lesions	Vaccinate and avoid contact
5	External parasite	Lice or mite on skin, especially under wings	Delousing drugs	Delouse
6	Internal parasite	Emaciation, dead worms, and eggs in faeces	Deworming drugs	Deworm, clean litter

Systems used in Rearing Chickens

The systems employed depend on whether the chickens are reared for commercial purposes or not. There are basically three systems used in rearing poultry. These are:

1.   extensive systems

2.   semi-intensive systems

3.   intensive systems

The extensive systems are the free-running system and the range system. In the free-running system, chickens are allowed to forage for food without any restrictions as found in villages. The Very little shelter is provided for the chickens to roost at night. The owners may put hens to sit on eggs when the hens show signs of broodiness.

In the range system, chicks are allowed to run in a fenced area during the day. At night they are confined in a hut or shed.

In this system, the chickens are reared in a fixed house but have access to grass runs which are adjacent to the house. During the day they are allowed to run. Food and water are provided in troughs in the house and the birds will enter occasionally to eat and drink. During the night the birds are shut in the pen. The run provides grass, insects worms and grit on which the chickens forage during the day.

In this system, the birds are confined in houses all the time and are not allowed to run outside. It is used for commercial egg and broiler production. Intensive systems require less land space but high capital. The feed provided has to be a good quality and special attention has to be paid to sanitation to control diseases and parasites.

Intensive systems are the deep litter or built-up litter and the battery cage system.

Deep-litter System: In this system, the chickens are reared ail the time on a litter of wood shaving which is placed on the floor to protect the birds from cold and to absorb the moisture in the dung. The litter can be built up by adding fresh material like rice hulls and dry grass or straw whenever the need arises.

Battery Cage System: The birds are kept in cages which may be placed one on top of the other. Each cage will carry its own litter collecting pan. The cages are kept in a house. The birds are kept either one in a cage or in groups.

Housing: The farmer should build durable houses to protect the chickens. The building should be on well-drained land and should be well ventilated.

1    electrical facilities for lighting.

2    Feeding troughs and feed hoppers,

3   waterers   e.g.   water   fountains   and automatic waterers

4    hay forks and rakes for turning of litter

5    spades for removing litter.

6   Others  are buckets, nest boxes,  egg baskets, egg trays, egg grader, candler,

Brooding: this is the period of management for first three to four weeks during which some source of warmth is provided for the comfort of the chicks. Brooding can be done naturally and artificially.

Care and Management:

1.   Cleaned and disinfected pen before the introduction of chicks.

2.   Secure the pen from predators such as rats, cats, and dogs

3.  Provide disinfectant to disinfect the feet of anyone entering the pen.

Feed and Water: During brooding, the chicks should be fed special rations. Laying chicks should be fed chick starter and broiler chicks should be fed broiler starter.

the reach of the birds at all times. The raising of the feeders and drinkers are essential as the birds grow older.

Managing Litter: The litter should be turned daily, and if wet, it should be removed.

Vaccination: Growing birds should be vaccinated before they begin to lay.

Debeaking: This is the removal of a portion of birds beak. Debeaking is done to prevent the birds from injuring one another.

Culling: This is the practice of removing from the flock those birds which are not laying economically. Layers are usually culled when their egg production falls below 40 %. Egg collection.

Candling: The passing of light through egg in a dark room to see inside the egg is called candling. This is done to determine whether eggs are fertile or infertile. If fertile the embryo in the egg is seen as a speck with a network of blood vessels.

RABBIT 

Numerous breeds and sizes exist. Average life expectancy for pet rabbits is 7-8 years, some can reach 15 years of age or more. Male rabbits will reach sexual maturity at 6-10 months of age, and females at 5-9 months.

  

Rabbits should also have access to water that is offered from either a sipper bottle or heavy ceramic bowl. The water should be changed daily and the container cleaned. Since rabbits cannot survive longer than 24 hours without water (and possibly less if the weather is hot), water availability should be checked once to twice a day.

Dietary supplements for rabbits are questionably necessary, especially if all other aspects of the diet are balanced and enough fiber is consumed.

Housing: Outdoor rabbits are prone to attacks from dogs and wildlife, as well as infections from maggots, fleas, mites, and other parasites. Therefore, rabbits are likely to remain healthier if housed exclusively indoors. An indoor cage should be large enough to allow for normal hopping with an area for sleeping and an area for being active. Half of the cage should be solid wood to prevent feet sores, and the other half mesh with wire gauge for feces/urine to easily fall through. Cages should be well ventilated and easily cleaned. Some rabbits may chew at the metal mesh so it's important the cage is not made of lead or zinc or coated with toxic paint.

Since many rabbits will deposit urine and feces in the same place each time, they can be easily trained to a litter box. This is accomplished by spending several days with the rabbit and placing him/her in the box repeatedly, especially when beginning to lift the tail before urinating. The rabbit should then be kept in the box until he/she has used it and then allow him/her to hop away. It may help to place several fecal pellets into the box as well. It's also helpful to place the box in the area the rabbit tends to use most often in the cage, as well as be easily accessible from the outside.

In addition to keeping rabbits healthier if living inside, they will also be much happier if given more personal attention while inside. Free roaming of the house is a great way to encourage exercise and socialization. It is important however to ensure the rabbit is never allowed unsupervised exercise. Several precautions should also be taken to "rabbit proof the house. Small tight areas should be eliminated and access to electrical and phone cords should be removed. All plants, chemicals, and cleaners should also be out of reach. It is very common for rabbits to chew on wooden furniture or wall/door corners. Wooden toys inside of the cage can curb the desire for constant chewing when out of the cage.

Handling: Rabbits can truly be interactive pets that love socialization and affection from people. All rabbits, therefore, should have a hiding box or house to retreat to during times of stress. There are several safe, humane ways to pick up a rabbit. The best would be to pick them up with two hands, one behind the front legs and one under the rear for support. The head can then be tucked under the elbow while carrying. An alternative method for picking up would use one hand to grab the rabbit's large scuff, and another under the rear for weight support. If a rabbit does not feel well supported, he/she will be likely to jump or kick and can easily injure or break its legs or spine.

Table 7: Some common diseases of rabbit

Disease Pneumonia  Symptom                                   Treatment

Bacterial disease characterised               The rabbit should be injected with

by occasional tilting back of the              antibiotics as soon as the disease is

head, heavy breathing, loss of                 observed and protected from

appetite as well as loss of condition         exposure to excessive

which may eventually result in death        cold and rain

Ringworm                    Caused by fungus. It shows as                 The affected rabbits should be isolated

reddened spots on the skin. Highly          and the hutch disinfected with izal.

contagious, also to humans                      Affected spots should be washed with  warm, soapy water, rinsed, dried and a

 tincture of iodine should be applied

Coccidiosis                  Highly contagious disease. Associated    Infected rabbits should be kept

with bloodstained feces and/or             isolated and treated with a drug.

diarrhoea. Animal eventually get              The cages should be disinfected with

thin and anaemic.                                  izal and kept without animals

for 3 months.

Cancer                         mucus discharge from the ear,               The rabbits should be cleaned with

scratching of ear and shaking of head.   disinfectant and sprayed

with aureomyan

Mite or Mange            hair loss and poor appetite                     The body should be robbed with

dettol or used engine oil.

The rabbit can be sprayed with Asumtol

The rabbit's pregnancy cycle averages 31 days with a litter size of 4-10 baby bunnies. The mother may only nurse one or two times a day, and the babies are typically weaned at 4-6 weeks of age. Because rabbits are considered prey species (like most exotics), they will tend to hide symptoms of illness for days to weeks. Therefore any changes observed by the owner should never be taken lightly and warrants a trip to the vet as soon as possible.

Nutrition: Rabbits should be fed a consistent balance of free-choice hay, measured pellets, and fresh vegetables. For normal digestion to occur, rabbits should always have access to a fresh supply of high quality grass hay. Due to the lower protein and calcium content, grass hay, such as timothy, oat, orchard, or brome, is far preferable to legume hay, such as alfalfa, clover, peanut, or pea.

In addition to pellets and hay, rabbits should also be offered a small amount of vegetables on a daily basis.

Table 6: Some common diseases of rabbit

Disease                                                Symptom                                   Treatment

Pneumonia                  Bacterial disease characterised              The rabbit should be injected with

                                  by occasional tilting back of the             The affected rabbits should be isolated

head, heavy breathing, loss of                and the hutch disinfected with izal,

appetite as well as loss of condition       Affected spots should be washed

which may eventually result in death      with warm, soapy water, rinsed, dried

and a tincture of iodine should be applied

Coccidiocisis             Highly contagious disease.                        Infected rabbits should be kept isolated

                                  Associated with bloodstained                    and treated with drug. The cages

                                faeces and/or diarrhoea. Animal               should be disinfected with izal andeventually                                   get thin and anaemic.                                kept without animals for 3 months.

Cancer                     mucus discharge from the ear,                  The body should be robbed with 

                                 scratching of ear and shaking                    dettol or used engine oil.

                                of head.                                                   The rabbit can be sprayed

Mate or Mage        hair loss and poor appetite                       with Asumtol 

Terms used in Rabbit management

Buck: adult male Doe: adult female Pup: young rabbit Kindling: act of parturition 

FARM ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

Farm animal husbandry is a practice that is concerned with the management of domestic animals such as cattle, poultry, pigs etc. for optimum production. This involves the application of basic rules to help in animal production. Husbandry involves doing the right thing at the right time. It includes intensive, semi-intensive and extensive systems.

SYSTEM OF FARM ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

1. Intensive: also called "factory farming" is a term referring to the process of raising livestock in confinement at high stocking density (fig.6.1). This process involves putting animals into confinement most of the time to house them; where they are provided with shelter, food, and water. It is found in animals like poultry pen (layers - egg laying; and broilers for meat production), dairy animals etc.

  

Fig.6.1: Intensive System in Poultry

Advantages of Intensive System of Animal Husbandry

i.   Require small landmass

ii. Result in high yield or product

The disadvantage of Intensive System of Animal Husbandry

i.                     It is capital intensive ii. Needs a lot of labour per unit land

ii.                   Good knowledge of operations and biology of animals necessary

2. Semi-intensive: This combines both intensive and extensive (fig.6.2). It is characterized with one or more pens in which the animals can forage on natural vegetation to supplement the feed supplied. Examples are the goat, sheep, pig etc. kept in the house but allowed to go grazing and come back to sleep.

Advantages of Semi-Intensive System of Animal Husbandry

i.   Low in cost

ii. The growth of the birds and egg production are likely to be less than with systems offering closer confinement and better feed.

The disadvantage of Semi-Intensive System of Animal Husbandry

i.   Losses may be encountered in bush ii. The   poultry   run   requires   a considerable amount of fencing.

Extensive: This involves keeping animals in the open range where they are allowed to feed on plants and any other food on the field. There is no special provision of shelter, food, and water; but the get them as they move from one place to another. Nomadic herding is an extreme example of extensive farming, where herders move their animals to use the feed from occasional rainfalls.

Advantages of Extensive System of Animal Husbandry

i.   Less labour per unit areas is required to farm large areas,

ii. Less capital per unit areas is required to farm large areas,

iii. Animal   welfare   is   generally improved because animals are not kept in stifling conditions,

iv. Lower requirements of inputs,

v. There, is less likely to be problems with exotic species,

vi. Local environment and soil are not damaged by overuse of chemicals.

Disadvantages of Extensive System

i. Yields tend to be much lower than with intensive fanning in the short term

ii. Large- land requirements limit the habitat of wild species, as is the case with intensive farming

Management Requirement in Animal Husbandry

The following are important for healthy and sustainable animal husbandry:

Housing: Good housing keeps the animal safe from predators and harsh environmental conditions like extremes of temperature, rainfall, humidity, sunlight, etc. the houses varies with the animals involved. It requires good ventilation, lighting, space among other factors.

Feeding: good nutrition is important in animal husbandry to have good yield. Diet determines the level of yield.

Hygiene and Medication: There is need for the animals to live in clean and healthy environment. Poor hygiene can cause disease and subsequently death of animals, Appropriate medication should be given to sick animals to prevent loss.

Weaning: This means depriving young animals of their mother's breast milk until they completely stop breast feeding. It has to stop for reproductive cycles to continue.

Rearing to maturity: These are stages for bringing up the young ones to adult stage. Most domesticated farm animals do have enough parental care and takes care of their young immediately after delivery. Support can be given by the farmer to further enhance production,

Marketing: There are three important elements to good marketing practice:

i.   Produce the commodity required by consumer. This means  continuous market research must be carried out to relate production to demand,

ii. Be   competitive:   Higher  price   is usually associated with good quality and/or   specialized   product. Therefore, it is necessary to relate price to quality and market demand and  to  operate  in  a  competitive manner With the opposition, iii. Reliability produce a commodity for the market and ensure that supply, price and quality are reliable.

CUCUMBER

Climatic   and   soil   requirements:

Cucumber also known as Cucumis sativus in botanical name  requires warmth, moisture, and nutrients. It prefers a fairly loose soil enriched with organic manure. Cucumber may not do well in highly compacted waterlogged clay soil.

Cultivation:

Seeds are grown straight into permanent beds or ridges. They germinate, grow, and produce fruits, which are harvested. The sowing of the seeds should begin at the end of the rainy season (about October). The seeds are shown on previously prepared sandy beds. Two rows of seeds are sown per bed. A spacing of 10cm between rows and 60cm between seeds is used. Planting depth not more than 2cm. When sowing is completed, the ridges are covered with dead grasses (mulching).

Germination: 

Germination of cucumber seeds occurs 3-4 days after sowing. They soon develop climbing aids called tendrils and start to climb. Hence, it is important that adequate support is provided for the seedlings in advance.

Diseases:

The mildew fungi affect cucumber. Badly infected plants should be pulled up and burned to avoid the spread of the infection. Fungicide could be used to treat infected plants.

Harvesting:

Cucumber fruits mature in about two months after the seeds are sown. The fruits are harvested by plucking manually.

Importance:

It is cultivated for its juicy and crisp fruit, which can be eaten raw. It can be used as an important ingredient in the preparation of vegetable salads. It is rich in vitamin C and mineral salts.

YAM 

Yams have a general botanical name Dioscorea spp  - require well-drained loamy soils, rich in humus. Yams like high temperature direct simple sunshine and rainfall of about 75cm.

Land Preparation:

Land clearing followed ridging is advisable.

There are different species:

I.     Dioscorea rotundata (White Yam)

ii.    D. cayensis (Yellow Yam)

iii,   D. alata (WaterYam)

iv.    D. dumentorum (Three-leaf Yam)

v.     D. bulbifera (Aerial Yam)

vi.   D. esculena (Chinese Yam)

Sowing: Early planting is around November to December, and Late planting is from February to March. Planting can be with yams sett or seed yams. Seeds rate should be about 2.5 tones -5 tonnes per hectare with each yam sett weighing 0.8kg -1kg. The sett can be treated against yam beetle by rolling them in Aldrin 2.5% dust before planting. Yam is propagated by vegetative means using tuber.

Weeding

Weeding is done 2 to 4 times.

Staking: 

This is the provision of support for the yam vines. Stems of bamboos, raffia, and palm fronds and erect plants are used. These are tied to trees and the vines directed to trail up the ropes. Yield can be reduced by about 50% if there is no staking.

Fertilization Application: 

Apply 10, 10:20 mixed fertilizer at the rate of 260kg -500kg per hectare. Apply 10cm away from the stand and 10cm deep around each stand at 2-3 months of planting.

Harvesting: 

Early harvested yam cannot be stored for it contains too much water so that it is eaten or sold for money. The process of early harvesting, while tuber is still growing, is call detuberisation of topping. The main harvest starts when leaves begin to -wither and the vines also begin to turn yellow.

Storage: Harvested crops are tied in a barn. In tying the tubers, space is left at the base to keep off rodents and contact with other tubers. Sometimes harvested yams may be buried for before tying in barns.

Pests of Yam: 

The most important are the yam beetle (hetroligus sp.)

Importance: Yam is the cue of the most important root crops. It is the staple food for many Nigerians.

PEPPERS

Climatic and Soil Requirements: 

Pepper with botanical name Capsicum Spp. grows best on well-drained soil, light loamy soil which is rich in lime, a rainfall of 65-130mm is required.

Cultivation: Seed-bed or nursery is required in a shady area preferably near water. Planting is done by scattering viable seeds on the seed beds. Germination takes place in 6-10 days. The developing seedlings are transplanted after 4-6 weeks. Newly transplants seedlings should be watered daily until the roots are firmly established in the soil.

Spacing of 60-90ctn apart can be used. Weed farmland when necessary.

Mulch when necessary. Apply organic fertilizer of about 2.5kg/m2. Inorganic fertilizer can be applied in a ring, about 1 Ocrh away from the base of each plant.

Pests and Diseases: The major pests are birds and nematodes. Birds can be controlled with trap, and other physical methods. Nematode can be controlled by applying a nematicide.

Viral diseases like mosaic and leaf curl can be controlled by uprooting and burning infected plants.

Harvesting and Storage: The fruits are ready for harvest 3-4 months after planting by hand picking. The harvested fruits can be used directly; or treated with hot water for about 30 minutes after which they are dried. After drying, the fruits can either be crushed into powder and sold or stored.

Importance: 

Peppers are used as condiments for the preparation of stews, soups and for seasoning foods. Peppers are good sources of vitamins A, C, and E. It can be exported.